Water Quality Index and Human Health Risk Assessment of Drinking Water in Selected Urban Areas of a Mega City

The present study was conducted to evaluate the quality of drinking water and assess potential health hazards due contaminants in selected urban areas Lahore, Pakistan. Water samples were collected from ten sites analyzed for different physico-chemical parameters including turbidity, color, pH, total dissolved solids (TDS), nitrates, fluoride, residual chlorine, hardness. Additionally, heavy metal (arsenic) microbial (E. coli) also determined samples. Drinking evaluation indices, index (WQI) biological human risk assessment (HHRA) estimated using analytical results target parameters. It found most that levels arsenic, TDS, chlorine higher than those recommended by National Environmental Quality Standard (NEQS) World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines. In addition parameters, content areas. Statistical analysis indicated are significantly between sampling sites. WQI all unfit unsuitable (WQI > 100) purposes except Bhatti Gate Chota Gaon Shahdara with a 87 91, respectively. these had very poor rating. According HHRA, be high children adults. carcinogenic arsenic both adults (4.60 4.37 × 10−3, respectively). Regular monitoring is essential, proactive measures must implemented ensure treatment availability safe